This study aims to compare the geothermal waters of Gümüþkent (GK), Koçpýnar (KP), Dertalan (DA), Terme (TE), Kozaklý (KZ), Bayramhacý (BH), Karakaya (KK), Tuzlusu (TZ), Ziga (ZG), Narlýgöl (NG), Yeþilhisar (YH), and Kemerhisar (KH), which exhibit temperatures ranging from 17.5°C to 86°C. Additionally, the origins of these waters are evaluated by taking into account the cold waters of Helvadere (HD), Dokuzpýnar (DP), Terme (TES), and Kozaklý (KOS), with temperatures between 10.4°C and 13.09°C, all located in Central Anatolia.
The aquifers of these fault-controlled waters are of Paleozoic marbles and Eocene limestones; cover rocks are impermeable units. The heat production system of these waters may be due to young volcanism and granitic/syenitic intrusions as well as radiogenic sources. The types of these carbonated, sulfated and saline waters are Ca-HCO3 in KP, GK, BH and TE; Na-SO4 in KZ; Ca-SO4 in DA; Na-Cl in TZ, ZG, NG, KH, KK and YH, respectively. These waters, which are of meteoric origin in terms of isotopic (δ18O ve δ2H), generally have deep circulation and slow flow. The main reason for the deviation observed from the meteoric water line in some waters is evaporation. In KH, YH and KK with low temperatures, the mineralization of these waters increased as a result of long-term gas-rock-water interaction. The causes of salinization in the Na-Cl-type waters may be the dissolution of halite minerals and the mixing of older waters trapped at depth during the closure of the Tuzgölü and salt domes in the TZ and ZG, the Central Kýzýlýrmak basin in the YH and KK, and the Ulukýþla basin in the KH. According to δ13C (‰PDB) values, the sources of CO2 gas in waters may be geogenic (marble, marine and lacustrine limestone) and/or mantle. According to δ34S ‰VCDT values, the source of sulfate in waters may be evaporitic rocks in KK, ZG, KZ, TZ, KH, and volcanic and/or carbonate rocks in other waters. The 14C ages of the waters are lowest in DA (19.15 ka) and highest in KK (45.11 ka: kilo annum). The calculated ages are apparent because the 14C values of the waters in question are often a measure of the contribution of modern biogenic carbon to the total dissolved carbonate or bicarbonate. In this context, the waters examined may be old waters that entered the system from late Pleistocene to early Holocene periods.

This study evaluates the suitability of clayey and sandy gypsum deposits from the Çankýrý region of Türkiye for use in plaster production. Samples were collected in their natural state, without beneficiation or additives, to reflect realistic field conditions. Chemical compositions were determined by XRF, mineralogical phases were identified using XRD and Raman spectroscopy, and textural features were assessed by thin-section petrography. Results show that most samples contained SO₃ and CaO levels consistent with high-purity gypsum. One sample (Çankýrý-4) exhibited elevated SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ contents, as well as accessory phases such as quartz, calcite, and clays, and was therefore excluded from further evaluation. Petrographic observations indicated that Çankýrý-1 and Çankýrý-6 displayed homogeneous fabrics comparable to the industrial reference, while Çankýrý-5 exhibited more heterogeneous features. Mechanical tests demonstrated that the uniaxial compressive strength increased from 1.51 MPa at 7 days to 2.84 MPa at 90 days, whereas the flexural strength rose dramatically from 0.62 MPa at 28 days to 1.52 MPa at 90 days. These results indicate that even without pre-treatment or reinforcement, natural clayey and sandy gypsum from Çankýrý can achieve mechanical performance comparable to conventional plaster materials, highlighting their potential for cost-effective and sustainable construction applications.

A wide variety of environmental risk factors may arise during the process of coal mining. At the same time, it is possible that during the transportation and extraction of coal, locals and especially the workers working in the mining area may be harmed, depending on their proximity to agricultural lands and settlement centers. Revealing the spatial distribution of potentially hazardous elements in coal (Ag, As, B, Ba, Be, Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, F, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, Th, Tl, U, V, Zn) is an important step for identifying potential environmental health risks. Using Geographic Information System (GIS) tools and Remote Sensing techniques, the objective of this study is to identify and compare the spatial risk assessment of the elements in the Ilgýn (Konya) and Karapýnar (Konya) lignite areas. The surroundings of the mining sites were classified into 7 classes (crops, rangeland, bare ground, water, built area, flooded vegetation, trees) using SENTINEL-2 satellite data with a 10 m spatial resolution and CORINE LULC data. Subsequently, mapping and buffer zone analyses were conducted using the GIS. The land use land cover classification revealed that both mining sites were highly distributed in agricultural lands (Karapýnar: 155.32 km2, Ilgýn: 178.45 km2) and rangeland (Karapýnar: 140.4 km2, Ilgýn: 40.72 km2). Geochemical results showed that Ni concentrations exceeded the limit values in the Karapýnar lignites, while As concentrations exceeded the limit values in the Ilgýn lignites. Based on these results, it was concluded that the Ni concentration in agricultural lands and rangeland around the Karapýnar site and the As concentration in agricultural lands and rangeland around the Ilgýn site should be monitored periodically.

In this study, the weathering degrees of the outcropping magmatic rocks in the northeastern part of Aksaray province, as well as the heavy metal variations in the resulting granitoid-derived soils and their associated environmental risks, were evaluated. The calculated weathering indices vary as follows: Ruxton Ratio (RR) 5.88–8.51, Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) 49.58–66.33, Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) 60.45–80.18, Weathering of Parker Index (WIP) 48.32–76.79, and Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) 64.33–83.79. These values indicate that the granites in the study area are moderately weathered. To assess the environmental risks of heavy metals (HMs) in the granitic soils, the Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo), Contamination Factor (CF), Pollution Load Index (PLI), and Potential Ecological Risk (PER) were calculated, ranging from -4.58 to 0.99, 0.06 to 2.98, 0.36 to 0.97, and 0.124 to 23.818, respectively.
The ecological indices, which show similar distributions with increasing weathering degrees, indicate the absence of significant heavy metal pollution in the area and suggest that any minor contamination originates from the lithology, with no anthropogenic pollution observed.

This study investigates the mineralogy of skarn, ore, and wall rocks in the Kesikköprü Fe-skarn deposit, along with the behavior, distribution, and enrichment processes of major oxides and trace elements. It also evaluates the skarn-forming potential of the Kesikköprü granitoid for different metals. The Kesikköprü mineralization is linked to an endoskarn zone dominated by garnet-pyroxene (±phlogopite±epidote) and to an exoskarn zone, in which assemblages toward the wall rocks comprise garnet (±pyroxene±phlogopite), pyroxene (±garnet±phlogopite±epidote), epidote-garnet, and epidote. Magnetite mineralization is particularly found within the epidote-garnet and epidote exoskarn subzones. Mineralogical and geochemical data indicate a significant increase in iron content during the late stages of skarn formation. Geochemical and isocon-mass balance analyses demonstrate a strong protolith control on skarn formation. In the granitoids, the endoskarn formation is characterized by Ca-Fe-Mg-Mn-Si addition with Al and alkalis (Na, K) depletion, whereas marbles record Ca depletion accompanied by increasing Fe input toward the ore zones. Based on the genetic link between skarn-forming granitoids and associated metal types, the Kesikköprü granitoid is inferred to have the potential to generate not only Fe-skarns but also Cu- and partially Au- and Pb-Zn skarns. Considering the regional mineralization, these findings suggest that the Kesikköprü granitoid possesses a multi-metal potential worthy of further exploration.

Muscovite is a dioctahedral mica mineral belonging to the phyllosilicates, also known as sheet silicates. It is also referred to as white mica; muscovites can be found in all major rock groups, including igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Muscovites, which are common in igneous rocks, especially in S-type granites and pegmatitic rocks, are also present in varying proportions within metamorphic rocks composed of schist and gneiss in the greenschist facies. Phyllosilicates, one of the main types of silicates, possess variable structures and complex chemistries. Due to these structural and compositional differences, the Raman shifts of phyllosilicates can be observed in different spectral regions. Furthermore, variations in the crystallization processes of magma and differences in the pressure-temperature conditions during metamorphism affect the intensity and wavenumber of their Raman spectra.
In this study, the Raman spectra of muscovites of both igneous and metamorphic origins were compared, and the differences in their Raman spectra, including peak shifts, were analyzed to elucidate the distinctions between them. There are shifts in the Raman spectra of muscovites due to differences in pressure and temperature. The peak shifts, which generally develop in the metamorphic rocks, occur due to the effect of temperature and especially pressure. In addition, it is known that peak shifts are also related to the content of elements such as Si and Al in muscovites. It is thought that metamorphic muscovites have undergone preferential orientation due to the pressure acting during metamorphism and therefore the peak intensity has increased, and the band width has increased due to structural defects arising from foliation developed as a result of the pressure during metamorphism. The results of this study demonstrate that the origin of muscovites and the rock types it belongs to can be identified by utilizing Raman spectra.

The studied garnet porphyroblasts occur within metamorphic rocks consisting of schists with variable mineralogical compositions in the Ekinözü (Kahramanmaraþ) region. The porphyroblasts crystallized in pentagonal dodecahedron forms, ranging in size from 0.5 to 4 cm and exhibit dark red to reddish-black colors with vitreous luster. Microscopic observations reveal that the garnet porphyroblasts display a highly fractured and cracked texture, containing inclusions of quartz, chlorite and opaque minerals such as ilmenite-magnetite. Confocal Raman spectroscopy analyses indicate that the garnet porphyroblasts are of almandine composition. Their chemical structural formulas were determined as Alm0.80-0.88Prp0.07-0.13Grs0.01-0.07Sps0.00-0.05. Garnet–biotite geothermometry calculations suggest that the garnets crystallized under average pressure conditions of ~4.5 kbar at temperatures of 465.4 ± 41.6 °C. Multi-element variation diagrams normalized to the lower and upper continental crust indicate depletion in LIL elements (Sr, K, Rb and Ba), whereas enrichment is observed in HFS elements (Ta, P, Zr, Hf and Y). Chondrite-normalized multi-element diagrams show up to 100-fold enrichment in Rare Earth Elements (REE) (∑REE: 162.1–284.9; (La/Sm)N = 1.65–3.62; (Sm/Yb)N = 0.43–0.67). Enrichment Factor (EF) calculations from chemical analyses highlight the role of Co, Fe, U and Mn elements in color development. These findings are further supported by EPMA data and optical absorption spectroscopy, both of which confirm the predominant presence of Fe+2 ions. Mineralogical, geochemical and gemological investigations indicate that the Ekinözü garnet porphyroblasts formed under greenschist facies metamorphic conditions. Their euhedral crystal morphology, together with their dark red coloration and vitreous luster, suggests that these garnets have potential for use as gemstones in jewelry.

This study presents new petrographic and geochemical data on mafic dikes intruding the Kýratlý ophiolite (Ýpekyolu–Van, Eastern Anatolia), a segment of the southeastern branch of the Neo-Tethys. The dikes are mainly represented by microgabbros and diabases, composed of plagioclase and pyroxene, and display alteration features such as chloritization and sericitization. Major and trace element analyses indicate basaltic compositions that can be divided into tholeiitic and alkaline groups. Tholeiitic samples show depleted rare earth element (REE) patterns, Nb depletion, and Th enrichment, consistent with a supra-subduction zone origin, whereas alkaline samples exhibit light rare earth element (LREE)-enriched signatures and within-plate affinities, reflecting low-degree partial melting and/or crustal contamination during extensional phases. Comparisons with other ophiolitic dike suites in Türkiye suggest that the Kýratlý dikes record polyphase magmatism related to both subduction and extension. These findings provide new insights into the tectono-magmatic evolution of the southeastern Anatolian Ophiolite Belt and highlight the complex interplay of mantle heterogeneity, fractional crystallization, and tectonic processes during the closure of the Neo-Tethys.

This study aimed to constrain the crystallization and emplacement conditions of magmas that produced the Late Miocene volcanic rocks exposed at the junction of the Erzurum-Kars Plateau and the Eastern Pontides in the Northeastern Anatolia Region through a series of thermobarometric analyses. The volcanic succession unconformably overlies Oligocene mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone alternations, with limestone and cherty limestone at higher levels. Petrographically, they consist of fine- to coarse-grained basalt, basaltic andesite, and andesite. Mineral compositions include plagioclase (An16-77), clinopyroxene (Wo39-45En43-50Fs11-12), orthopyroxene (Wo3-4En73-82Fs14-24), olivine (Fo63-86), hornblende (Mg#=0.62-0.79), and Fe-Ti oxides (Usp0.05-1.44, Ilm94.10-95.53). The groundmass comprises microlites of these minerals and volcanic glass. The dominant textures are microlitic porphyritic, hyalo-microlitic, and microlitic porphyritic, while glomeroporphyritic, intergranular, pilotaxitic, subophitic, flow, and vesicular textures are also observed. Widely present disequilibrium features, such as zoning, sieve, and resorption, are common in plagioclase and clinopyroxene.
Thermobarometric calculations indicate crystallization temperatures of 880-1230°C, pressures of 0.73-8.71 kbar, oxygen fugacities between (-10.94) and (-8.92), and water contents of 4.60-6.32 wt.%. These results suggest that the volcanic rocks crystallized under volatile-rich, oxidizing conditions across a broad depth range (~2-32 km), at relatively high temperatures.

The metamorphic sole rocks at the base of the Kýnýk Ophiolite in the Ýzmir–Ankara–Erzincan Suture Zone provide important insights into the tectonothermal evolution of the northern Neotethys. Field and petrographic observations reveal a sequence of amphibolites, garnet–amphibolites, amphibole schists, and quartz schists, displaying granoblastic to nematoblastic textures with retrograde overprinting by chlorite and epidote.
Mineral chemical data show that garnets are dominated by almandine with subordinate pyrope and grossular, and very low spessartine, consistent with basaltic protoliths. Amphiboles are mainly calcic types, such as magnesiohornblende and tschermakite, preserving magmatic affinities but partly modified during metamorphism.
Geothermobarometric calculations indicate peak conditions of ~640–790 °C and ~4–5 kbar, corresponding to medium- to upper-amphibolite facies at mid-crustal depths of ~14–20 km. The higher temperatures recorded in one sample suggest a low-pressure/high-temperature regime, typical of metamorphic soles.
These findings demonstrate that the Kýnýk amphibolites originated from basaltic precursors and underwent LP–HT metamorphism during intra-oceanic subduction and subsequent ophiolite emplacement.

The isotropic gabbro and plagiogranite belonging to the Central Anatolian Ophiolites, are exposed as stocks around Derinkuyu (Nevþehir). Plagiogranite, which cuts the isotropic gabbro, contains mafic microgranular enclaves (MME) belonging to these rocks. Gabbro and MME contain plagioclase, clinopyroxene and hornblende minerals. The isotropic gabbros are in hornblende-pyroxene and pyroxene-hornblende/hornblende gabbro compositions. Plagiogranite is composed of quartz, plagioclase and hornblende, and exhibits a tonalite composition.
Mineral chemistry analysis results indicate that plagioclases in the gabbro, plagiogranite, and MME have compositions of andesine–bytownite (An47–85), andesine (An38–48), and labradorite–bytownite (An65–75), respectively. Clinopyroxenes (Mg#=0.73–0.84) and hornblendes (Mg#=0.57–0.79) are characterized by their high-Mg contents. Clinopyroxenes, diopside–augite (En37–43Fs12–15Wo42–47), and the hornblendes exhibit compositions of tschermakite–magnesio-hornblende. Clinopyroxene and hornblende data on the discrimination diagrams indicate the presence of an island arc for the source magma. Pyroxene and amphibole thermobarometry suggest that P–T crystallization conditions for clinopyroxene and hornblende 2.60–1.37 kbar 1199–1186°C and 1.95–1.09 kbar; 864–790°C, respectively. These data manifest that the magma of supra-subduction type ophiolite rise towards shallow lithospheric levels (9.2–3.9 km).